The solution is the Book of Life with Mother Earth - www.med-etc.com

Kontakt /
                      contact     Hauptseite /
                      page principale / pagina principal / home     zurück / retour / indietro / atrás / back
<<      >>

Encyclopaedia Judaica

Jews in Germany 01: Middle Ages

Spiritual centers Worms, Mainz, and Speyer - Crusades and other massacres - bans and restrictions - expulsions and coming back - social and cultural quarrels

Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971): Germany, vol. 7,
                    col. 465. Illustration showing Jews receiving a
                    charter of privileges from Emperor Henry VII in
                    1312. From: Codex Baldvini; Koblenz, Municipal
                    Archives. [[See that the Jews were forced to wear
                    pointed "Jewish hats"]].
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971): Germany, vol. 7, col. 465. Illustration showing Jews receiving a charter
of privileges from Emperor Henry VII in 1312. From: Codex Baldvini; Koblenz, Municipal Archives.
[[See that the Jews were forced to wear pointed "Jewish hats"]].

from: Germany; In: Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971), vol. 7

presented by Michael Palomino (2008)

Teilen / share:

Facebook




The solution is the Book of Life with Mother Earth - www.med-etc.com

<GERMANY, country in north central Europe.

The Talmud and the Midrash use "Germania" (or "Germamia") as a designation for northern European countries, and also refer to the military prowess of these peoples and to the threat they posed to the Roman Empire (Meg. 6b; Gen. R. 75:9; etc.). Medieval Jewish sources first refer  to Germany as "Allemania"; later the biblical term *"Ashkenaz" came into use, and was retained in Hebrew literature and Jewish vernacular until recent times.

The entry is arranged according to the following outline:

Middle Ages
First Crusade
Spiritual Life
Social Life
13th Century
Persecutions of the 14th Century (col. 457)

From the Reformation to World War I
The Absolutist Principalities
Social and Spiritual Life
Court Jews
Haskalah
Effects of French Revolution
Post-Napoleonic Reaction
Assimilation and Reform
Economic and Social Life
Emancipation
Anti-Semitism
Internal Life

1914-1933
Communal Organization
Cultural Life

1933-1939
World War II
Contemporary Period
Reestablishment of Jewish Communities

Relations with Israel

Middle Ages.

[Roman times: Jews in Cologne - Jewish merchants on the rivers and trade routes]

There is no substance to the legends extant in the Middle Ages relating that Jews were present in Germany "before the Crucifixion". The first Jews to reach Germany were merchants who went there in the wake of the Roman legions and settled in the Roman-founded Rhine towns. The earliest detailed record of a Jewish community in Germany, referring to *Cologne, is found in imperial decrees issued in 321 and 331 C.E. (Cod. Theod., 16:8, 3-4; Aronius, Regesten, no. 2). There is, however, no evidence of continuous Jewish settlement in Germany, although the Jews' Street in Cologne remained inside the Roman town in the early days of the German Empire.

Jews entered Central (col. 458)

Europe in this period from the west and the southwest; Jewish merchants from southern Italy and France were welcomed in Germany, and settled in the town along the great rivers and trade routes. The *Kalonymos family from Lucca established itself in *Mainz in the tenth century.

[[The whole period from 500 to 900 is missing in the article]].

Like the Jews of France, German Jewry in its early stages drew its inspiration in matters of religion and religious practice straight from the centers of Jewish creative activity in Erez Israel [[Ereẓ Israel]]: a 12th-century Jewish scholar speaks of a letter he saw in *Worms, which Rhine Jews had sent to Erez Israel [[Ereẓ Israel]] in 960, asking for verification of the rumor that the Messiah had come (REJ 44 (1902), 238).

Until the end of the 11th century the Jews of Germany engaged in international (col. 459)

trade, especially with the East, and were a respected element of the urban population. They were concentrated along the west bank of the Rhine, in Lorraine, and in ancient episcopal seats and trade centers, such as Cologne, Mainz, *Speyer, Worms, and *Trier, as well as religious and political centers situated more eastward, such as *Regensburg and *Prague.

[Spiritual centers Worms and Mainz - protecting wall in Speyer - further charters of protection]

The extant reports of Jewish settlement in Germany are of a haphazard nature, and the dating of such records does not necessarily establish the sequence of settlement. The first mention of Jewish settlement in Mainz dates from c. 900, of Worms from 960, and of Regensburg from 981. Jewish communities in south central Germany (*Bamberg, *Wuerzburg) and *Thuringia (*Erfurt) are mentioned in documents from the 11th century. [[...]]

At the end of the tenth century (or the beginning of the 11th), *Gershom b. Judah ("Me'or ha-Golah") moved from *Metz to Mainz and that city became noted for Torah learning; the yeshivot of Mainz and Worms became spiritual centers for all the Jews in Central Europe and even attracted students from France, among them the famous *Rashi.

For the Jews, the Carolingian Empire, although no longer a political entity, still remained a single social and cultural unit. In Christian Germany, which had retained many of the concepts of a tribal society, the Jews figured as aliens as well as infidels. Their social and legal status was distinct from that of the general population, and, as people who had no country and were not Christians, they required special protection to safeguard their existence.

The first reports of persecution of Jews in Germany date from the 11th century (the expulsion of the Jews of Mainz in 1012), and the first written guarantee of rights, granted to them by emperors and bishops, also date from that century. In 1084 the archbishop of Speyer invited them to settle in his enlarged city "in order to enhance a thousandfold the respect accorded to our town" (Aronius, Regesten, 70 no. 168), and granted the Jews far-reaching trading rights and permission to put up a protective wall around their quarters.

This evidence of the high value attached to Jews for settlement of a new town and the expansion of its trade precedes by only 12 years the "gezerot tatnav" (1096; see below). In 1090 Emperor *Henry IV issued charters of rights to the Jews of Speyer and Worms (ibid., 71-77 nos. 170-1), and succeeding emperors followed his example. All these writs acknowledged the right of the Jews to be judged "by their peers and no others ... according to their law" (from a charter of 1090).

In another such document, granted to the Jews of Worms in 1157, the emperor reserved for himself the exclusive right of judging the Jews "for they belong to our treasury". The guarantees of rights were given to the community leaders, who were also the spiritual leaders of the community, and were well-to-do men belonging to respected families. Communities that were accorded guarantees already possessed a synagogue (the Worms synagogue was founded in 1034) and public institutions.

No reliable figures on the size of these Jewish communities are available; to judge by figures mentioned in the narratives of their martyrdom, there were communities of 2,000 persons (Mainz), but in general they consisted of several hundred, or several dozen. The community regulations (col. 460)

enacted by the Jewish communities in Germany, and the commentaries and piyyutim [[poetry for worship service, liturgical poems]] written by their scholars (such as Gershom b.Judah and *Simeon b. Isaac) reveal a strong and simple faith, and readiness to die for it (and see takkanot [[major legislative enactment within halakha (Jewish law)]] of the period). (col. 461)

[[...]]

[Persecutions since 1096 - moving to eastern Europe - ties with France]

The persecutions to which the Jews were exposed in the 12th to 14th centuries forced them to move from the south to the east and north of Germany, and they were drawn in the same direction by opportunities for trade and *moneylending. Thus, although this coincided with the general migratory trend within Germany, the Jews joined the move for independent reasons. In *Breslau and *Munich Jews are mentioned at the beginning of the 13th century, in *Vienna in the middle of that century, and in *Berlin (and other places) at its end. German Jews maintained close ties with France. (col. 460)

[[...]]

FIRST CRUSADE

[Legal and neighbors protection cannot stop the "Christian" madness of the "Crusaders" - martyrdom, hiding, temporary conversion]

Their faith was put to the supreme test during the first *Crusade, from April to June 1096. The brutal massacres that then took place are remembered in Jewish annuals as the gezerot tatnav (i.e., the massacres of 4856=1096). The first waves of crusaders turned upon the Jews of the Rhine valley. Although the emperor, the bishops, and Christian neighbors were reluctant to take part in this onslaught and tried to protect the Jews, this defense had small success. It was then that the Jews of Germany revealed their indomitable [[wild and always wild]] courage and religious devotion and chose a martyr's death (*kiddush ha-Shem).

[[The criminal anti-Semitic church as the main force of anti-Semitism is hardly mentioned in this article, but will be mentioned]].

In Mainz, it is related in a contemporary description of these acts of heroism that "in a single day one thousand and one hundred martyrs were slaughtered and died" (A. M. Habermann (ed.), Gezerot Ashkenaz ve-Zarefat (Ẓarefat) (1945), 32). The martyrdom of Mainz Jewry was preceded by negotiations with the emperor by Kalonymos ben Meshullam; in response, Henry IV published an order in defense of the Jews, but this was of little help. The Jews offered armed resistance and it was only in the final stage that they committed suicide. Similar events took place in many communities on the Rhine and along the crusaders' route;

many Jews chose martyrdom; other managed to save their lives by going into hiding (Speyer, Cologne, Worms, *Xanten, Metz). Some accepted temporary conversion, as in Regensburg, where "all were coerced " (ibid. 56). Later the emperor permitted their return to Judaism.

[[See also: *Crusades]].

[Changing of structures in Europe by the crusades - new habits - beginning of systematic discrimination by the criminal Church - money lending and pawnbroking - stigma, high interest rates and growing hatred - pawn becomes normal]

The beginning of the Crusades inaugurated far-reaching changes in the social and economic structure of the Christian peoples in Western Europe and in their general outlook, and as a result also mark a turning point in the history of German Jewry. Henceforth the mob came to regard physical attacks on Jews as permissible [[tolerated]], especially in periods of social or religious ferment [[difficulties]]. The city guilds forced the Jews out of the trades and the regular channels of commerce; this coincided with the stricter appliance [[instruments]] of the church ban on usury [[money lending etc.]] in the 12th to 13th centuries.

The combination of circumstances made money lending and pawnbroking [[depositing things for money]] the main occupation of Jews in Germany.

Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971): Germany, vol.
                      7, col. 462. A Jewish moneylender with his family
                      in the background negotiating with a peasant and a
                      townsman. Woodcut from Foltz: Die Rechnung
                      Kolpergers von dem Gesuch der Juden. Nuremberg
                      1491
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971): Germany, vol. 7, col. 462. A Jewish money lender with his family in the background
negotiating with a peasant and a townsman. Woodcut from Foltz: Die Rechnung Kolpergers von dem
Gesuch der Juden [[The billing of Kolpergers from the request of the Jews]]. Nuremberg 1491

They also continued in ordinary trade; as late as the 13th century they dealt in wool, attended the Cologne fairs, and traded with Russia and Hungary; during most of the Middle Ages there were even Jewish *craftsmen and Jews had some contact with *agriculture.

However money lending, conceived by the Church as usury, became the hallmark [[stamp]] of Jewish life in Germany. About 100 to 150 years after usury became the main occupation of Jews in England and France, it became central to the livelihood of Jews in Germany also. Jews hatred and the evel *image of the Jew as conceived in the popular imagination were nourished by this economic pattern. Owing to the scarcity of money and lack of firm securities the rate of interest was extremely high.

In 1244 the Jews of *Austria were given a bill of rights by Duke *Frederick II based on the assumption that interest was the Jews' main source of income; the bill contained detailed regulations on money lending, and the rate of interest was fixed at 173 1/3 %. This kind of charter for Jews became typical of those granted in central and eastern Germany (and Poland) in the 13th and 14th centuries. Borrowing money from Jews against pawns became usual among the nobility and the townspeople, and enabled rabble-rousers to accuse the Jews of "sucking Christian blood" and of associating (col. 461)

moneylenders. The Jews insisted on their right to refuse to return pawns unless reimbursed, a right confirmed as early as 1090.

After the end of the 11th century the social status of the Jews steadily deteriorated. The Landesfrieden ("peace of the land") issued in 1103 includes the Jews among persons who bear no arms and are therefore to be spared violence and defended.

[Daily danger of violence against the Jews since 1096 with generalizations - criminal Church maintains "perpetual serfdom and degradation" - definition as "servants" by Emperor Frederick II]

The concepts which had determined the status of the Jews from the beginning of their settlement in Germany were now applied with increasing cruelty and vigor. The German political view was molded by a combination of tribal and state concepts which could not regard those who were alien in blood and faith as citizens of the state, while the Church had always claimed that the sins of the Jews condemn them to perpetual serfdom and degradation. The The need of the Jews for refuge and protection was now utilized by the urge to oppress and exploit them.

A long-drawn-out process of legal and social development was finally summed up in 1236 by Emperor Frederick II, when he declared all the Jews of Germany *Servi camerae nostri ("servants of our treasury; Aronius, Regesten, 216 no. 496). This meant that from the legal point of view the Jews and their property were possessions of the emperor and hence entirely at his mercy. However they never fully experienced the severity of this concept as it was never fully applied to them; in a way, their status as servants of the imperial treasury was even welcomed for it assured them of imperial protection, protection which no other German authority was able or willing to afford them.

Long after the concept of the servitude of the Jews had been applied in Germany, *Meir b. Baruch of Rothenburg conceived that [[...] to any (col. 462)

particular place as gentiles are; for they are regarded as impoverished freemen who have not been sold into slavery; the government attitude is according to this" (Responsa, ed. Prague, no. 1001; cf. Tos. to BK 58a). The concepts that Jewish lives were not inviolable and that the Jews were in servitude to the country's rulers led to renewed outbursts of anti-Jewish violence whenever a critical situation arose.

[Second Crusade 1146: protection in castles and preaching of Bernard of Clairvaux calm the mob down]

The second Crusade (1146), which was again accompanied by widespread anti-Jewish agitation, was also a living nightmare for the Jews. However the experience of 1096 had taught a lesson both to the Jews and to the authorities: the Jews took refuge in the castles of the nobility, whenever possible having the entire citadel to themselves until the danger passed (see A.M. Habermann, op. cit. [[A. M. Habermann (ed.), Gezerot Ashkenaz ve-Zarefat (Ẓarefat) (1945)]] 117). The preaching of *Bernard of Clairvaux against doing the Jews physical harm also helped to restrain the masses. Thus a repetition of the earlier terrorization and slaughter did not take place.

Between the second Crusade and the beginning of the 13th century the Jews were subjected to numerous attacks and libels but relatively few lost their lives as a result.

[[To the contrary the Jews in Palestine suffered incredibly every time when "Christian" Crusaders arrived in Palestine. The Jewish population in Palestine was totally eliminated]].

SPIRITUAL LIFE.

[New prayers after the first crusade after 1096]

The events of 1096 had shaken German Jewry to the core; its response came in the form of tremendous spiritual and social creativity. Succeeding generations glorified the deeds of the martyrs and created a whole doctrine around the sanctification of God by martyrdom (kiddush ha-Shem). The ideas of self-sacrifice, *akedah, of choosing to meet "the Great Light" rather than apostasy, and of standing up to the attacker, were now formulated and transmitted as permanent principles. A (col. 463)

special blessing was inserted into the prayer book to be recited by those who were about to be slain. The martyrs of Xanten had their own prayer:

"May the Almighty avenge the blood of His servants which has been shed, and will be shed after us, in the days of those who survive us and before their very eyes: may the Almighty save us from men of evil, from destruction and idolatry and from the impurity of the gentiles" (A.M. Habermann, op. cit. [[A. M. Habermann (ed.), Gezerot Ashkenaz ve-Zarefat (Ẓarefat) (1945)]] 49).

This prayer expresses the general mood of the German Jews in this period and of the "leaders in martyrdom" in particular.

[Hasidism, pious Jewish men with new rules]

In the 12th and 13th centuries a group known as Hasidim [[Ḥasidim]] (pious men) came into being, distinguished by their piety in thought and deed (see *Hasidei (Ḥasidei) Ashkenaz). The way of life to which this group adhered was established, in the main, by the members of a single family: *Samuel b. Kalonymos he-Hasid (Ḥasid) of Speyer, his son *Judah b. Samuel he-Hasid (Ḥasid) of Regensburg, and their relative *Eleazar b. Judah (ha-Roke'ah (Roke'aḥ) of Worms.

These formulated the principles of perfect piety: observance of "Heavenly Law" (din shamayim) which which is above and beyond the "Law of the Torah", for the latter was given to man taking into account his yezer (yeẓer) ha-ra ("evil urge"). They taught that one should regard property as being held on trust (from God) only, and that one should abstain from lust without retiring from family and public life. Sefer Hasidim (Ḥasidim) and Sefer ha-Roke'ah (Roke'aḥ), two works written by these men, express the feelings and ideas of the Hasidim (Ḥasidim) of Germany on the greatness of God, on man's conduct in life, on ghosts and spirits, on sexual temptation and how to withstand it, on the true observance of commandments, and on love of learning as a foremost religious value. (col. 464)

SOCIAL LIFE

[Creation of Jewish quarters with walls for safety - intense social and religious life]

During this period further consolidation of the Jewish communal leadership in Germany took place. Jews increasingly restricted themselves to the Jewish quarter in the town, which gave them a greater feeling of security and made possible the development of an intense social life. The meliores (leading families) accepted the authority of the most eminent scholars. Torah learning was not interrupted in times of trouble and danger. It even received additional impetus from the need to provide leadership for the Jewish public and guidance to the individual, while the number of outstanding scholars also increased. Even the source of livelihood that was forced upon the Jews - lending money against interest - came to be appreciated as an advantage since it left time to spare for Torah study.

[Money business as main source - community structures]

Money lending also determined the artificial structure of Jewish life; the Jews derived their income mainly from non-Jews, and there was hardly any economic exploitation of one Jews by another. As a result, there was a large measure of social cohesion in the German communities.

The average community maintained a synagogue, a cemetery (or, if it was too small, obtained burial rights in a neighboring town), a bathhouse, and a place for weddings and other public festivities. A scholar attracted groups of students who lived in his home and were cared for by the scholar's wife (A.M. Habermann, op. cit., 165-6). Meir b. Baruch of Rothenburg attests that his house was spacious and included "a bet midrash ... a winter house [i.e. the main living quarters] ... a courtyard for public use ... a cool upper room where I eat in summer and ... a room ... for each student" (Responsa, ed. Cremona, no.. 108).

[[...]]

In the 12th century the Jews still took part in the defense of the towns in which they lived. Eleazar b. Judah tells of "the siege of Worms by a great host on the Sabbath, when we permitted all the Jews to take up arms ... for if they had not helped the townspeople they would have been killed ... therefore we permitted it" (Sefer ha-Roke'ah (Roke'aḥ) (Cremona, 1557), 23a, Hilkhot Eruvin, no. 197).

[New Jewish communities in eastern Europe]

In this period, Jews also moved with the eastward trend of the population, and new Jewish communities were established in the east and southeast. Those who joined in the movement of the urban population eastward encountered the terrors and problems of new colonists:

"When you build houses in the forest you find the inhabitants stricken with plague since the place is haunted by spirits ... They asked the sage what they should do; he answered: Take the Ten Commandments and a Torah Scroll and stretch out a cord the length or the ground, and bring the Torah Scroll to the cord ... and then at the end say: 'Before God, before the Torah, and before Israel its guardians, may no demon nor she-demon come to this (col. 466)

place from today and for ever' " (Sefer Hasidim (Ḥasidim) (ed. Wistinetzki, no. 371).

13TH CENTURY (col. 467)

Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971):
                                    Germany, vol. 7, col. 463-464. Map
                                    of the major medieval Jewish
                                    communities in Germany in the 13th
                                    century: Koenigsberg, Emden,
                                    Oldenburg, Bremen, Lueneburg,
                                    Osnabrueck, Hanover, Berlin,
                                    Frankfort on the Oder, Schwienitz,
                                    Magdeburg, Zerbst, Halberstadt,
                                    Hildesheim, Hameln, Muenster,
                                    Anhalt, Xanten, Bochum, Duesburg,
                                    Paderborn, Goettingen, Nordhausen,
                                    Halle on the Saale, Cottbus, Glogau,
                                    Breslau, Goerlitz, Dresden, Leipzig,
                                    Merseburg, Muehlhausen, Erfurt,
                                    Arnstadt, Marburg on the Lahn,
                                    Cologne, Aachen, Bonn, Ahrweiler,
                                    Andernach, Coblenz, Bingen, Mainz,
                                    Wiesbaden, Roedelheim, Frankfort on
                                    the Main, Friedberg, Limburg,
                                    Wetzlar, Fulda, Kissingen, Hanau,
                                    Offenbach, Aschaffenburg, Oppenheim,
                                    Trier, Kreuznach, Schweinfurt,
                                    Bamberg, Wuerzburg, Heidingsfeld,
                                    Kitzingen, Worms, Weinheim,
                                    Kaiserlslautern, Speyer, Heidelberg,
                                    Bruchsal, Heilbronn, Ettlingen,
                                    Pforzheim, Baden-Baden, Stuttgart,
                                    Tuebingen, Freiburg, Ensisheim,
                                    Constance, Lindau, Ulm, Memmingen,
                                    Augsburg, Munich, Regensburg,
                                    Deggendorf, Linz, Vienna, Graz,
                                    Ansbach, Sulzbach, Amberg, and
                                    Prague
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971): Germany, vol. 7, col. 463-464. Map of the major medieval Jewish communities in Germany in the 13th century: Koenigsberg, Emden, Oldenburg, Bremen, Lueneburg, Osnabrueck, Hanover, Berlin, Frankfort on the Oder, Schwienitz, Magdeburg, Zerbst, Halberstadt, Hildesheim, Hameln, Muenster, Anhalt, Xanten, Bochum, Duesburg, Paderborn, Goettingen, Nordhausen, Halle on the Saale, Cottbus, Glogau, Breslau, Goerlitz, Dresden, Leipzig, Merseburg, Muehlhausen, Erfurt, Arnstadt, Marburg on the Lahn, Cologne, Aachen, Bonn, Ahrweiler, Andernach, Coblenz, Bingen, Mainz, Wiesbaden, Roedelheim, Frankfort on the Main, Friedberg, Limburg, Wetzlar, Fulda, Kissingen, Hanau, Offenbach, Aschaffenburg, Oppenheim, Trier, Kreuznach, Schweinfurt, Bamberg, Wuerzburg, Heidingsfeld, Kitzingen, Worms, Weinheim, Kaiserlslautern, Speyer, Heidelberg, Bruchsal, Heilbronn, Ettlingen, Pforzheim, Baden-Baden, Stuttgart, Tuebingen, Freiburg, Ensisheim, Constance, Lindau, Ulm, Memmingen, Augsburg, Munich, Regensburg, Deggendorf, Linz, Vienna, Graz, Ansbach, Sulzbach, Amberg, and Prague


[Discrimination laws by Lateran Council of the Church: badge - blood libels and taxes]

The 13th century brought new troubles upon the Jews. The Fourth *Lateran Council (1215) [[by the criminal anti-Jewish Church]] decreed that the clergy were to restrict business relations between Christians and Jews, that Jews had to wear signs distinguishing them from the Christians (see *badge), and that they were not to hold any public office.

[[There were also laws that Jews had to wear special clothes and special pointed and colored hats]].

In 1235 the first case of *blood libel occurred in Germany (in *Fulda) and in the second half of the 13th century the libel of *Host desecration began to spread in the country. These accusations were to cost many Jewish lives, to cause Jews much anxiety and anguish, and to bring about further deterioration of their image in the eyes of their Christian neighbors, who now came to regard them as corrupt beings, capable of the most abominable crimes.

The acceptance of such views of the Jews by the masses occurred at a time when imperial rule was weakening, and the right to the Jews' "servitude to the treasury" was passed on or transferred in different ways and for differing reasons to various local competencies. Religious fanaticism was rising [[provoked by criminal preaching "Christian" priests etc. of the criminal Church]] and caused a social ferment in the cities, where the mob vented their anger on the Jews.

In 1241, when the Jews of *Frankfort on the Main tried to prevent one of their people from converting to Christianity, a Judenschlacht (Jews' slaughter) took place, in which the entire community was butchered by the Christian mob. In 1259 a synod of the Mainz archdiocese ordered that Jews within its borders should wear the yellow badge. In 1285 the entire Jewish community of *Munich - some 180 persons - was burned to death, victims of a libel that had been spread against them.

The Jews also had a heavy tax burden. A partial list of imperial revenue, dating from 1241, reveals that in 25 Jewish communities the Jews paid 857 marks, amounting to 12% of the entire imperial tax revenue for the year (7,127.5 marks) and 20% of the total raised in the German cities. In addition to the regular taxes the Jews also had to make payments in the form of "presents" and bribes, (col. 467)

or money was simply extorted from them.

[Cultural and social life: The basic Jewish law (takkanot) - leading role of Speyer, Worms, and Mainz]

In this period - the second half of the 13th century - German Jewry produced great spiritual leaders. (col. 468)

Community institutions developed. The community leaders and scholars - in gatherings on fair-days - issued takkanot regulating [[major legislative enactment within halakha (Jewish law)]] many spheres of life which were binding upon individual communities or groups of several communities.

In the 13th century, *Eliezer b. Joel ha-Levi of Bonn established the principle that a majority decision also obligated the opposing minority, and unanimity was not required (contradicting the 12th-century French scholar Jacob b. Meir *Tam). Communal offices which had come into existence in the 12th and 13th centuries are listed in a document issued by the Cologne community in 1301: Nos Episcopus, magistratus Judeorum ac universi Judei civitatis Coloniensis ("We the bishop [i.e., the leader], and officers of the Jews and the entire Jewish community of Cologne"; see Judenschreinsbuch, 92-93).


From 1220 onward, the "Takkanot Shum", regulations issued by three of the great communities on the Rhine - Speyer, Worms, and Mainz [[...]] - have been preserved; joint meeting of the leaders of these three communities had a decisive influence on all the Jewish communities in Germany. (col. 465)

German Jewry developed an independent leadership with a series of honors and degrees of rank. The intimacy of the small community enabled a person who felt wronged to turn to the public by means of interruption of prayer (see *bittul ha-tamid) in synagogue until he received redress. Families experienced the usual sorrows and joys, and also had their share of frivolities: "wild young men ... who liked gambling" (Sefer Hasidim (Ḥasidim)), ed. by J. Wistinetzki (1924), no. 109) and practical jokes at festivities (see also Tos. to Suk. 45a, s.v. Mi-Yad Tinnokot).

The main purpose of the takkanot was to strengthen religious life and especially to provide for increased study of the Torah, the observance of sexual purity laws, of the Sabbath, etc. They also introduced innovations designed to strengthen community life: the obligation on the part of each individual to pay his tax assessment and to refrain from false declarations, and the right of the community officers to transfer funds from one purpose to another, when the common good required it. Considerable emphasis was put on strengthening the authority of the community leadership: members of the community were not permitted to accept appointments by the authorities or to ask the authorities for exemption from community taxes; every dispute between Jews had to be brought before Jewish judges, and Jews were not allowed to apply to non-Jewish courts. Excommunication of an individual required the consent of the community, as did the divorce of a wife. Gambling was outlawed and regulations were issued for the preservation of order in the synagogues and law courts and at public celebrations. Lending money to Jews against the payment of interest, and insulting anyone in public were also prohibited. (col. 466)

Foremost was Meir b. Baruch of Rothenburg, whose responsa and instructions guided several generations of Jews. He attacked manifestations of injustice or high-handedness in communal affairs, and in his threnodies and other writings gave expression to the sufferings of his people. In the end, his own fate symbolized the distress of the Jews: trying to escape overseas, like other  persecuted Jews in Germany, he was arrested, handed over to the emperor, and died in jail in 1293. (col. 468)

Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971):
                                    Germany, vol. 7, col. 465.
                                    Illustration showing Jews receiving
                                    a charter of privileges from Emperor
                                    Henry VII in 1312. From: Codex
                                    Baldvini; Koblenz, Municipal
                                    Archives. [[See that the Jews were
                                    forced to wear pointed "Jewish
                                    hats", and the horse of the
                                    Emperor is staying in the air]].
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971): Germany, vol. 7, col. 465. Illustration showing Jews receiving a charter of privileges from Emperor Henry VII in 1312. From: Codex Baldvini; Koblenz, Municipal Archives. [[See that the Jews were forced to wear pointed "Jewish hats", and the horse of the Emperor is staying in the air]].
x
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971):
                                    Germany, vol. 7, col. 468. Woodcut
                                    of the blowing of the shofar in the
                                    synagogue, with women and children
                                    behind the screen in the foreground.
                                    From J.J. Pfefferkorn: Judenbeichte;
                                    Cologne, 1508
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971): Germany, vol. 7, col. 468. Woodcut of the blowing of the shofar in the synagogue, with women and children behind the screen in the foreground. From J.J. Pfefferkorn: Judenbeichte [[Jewish confession]]; Cologne, 1508


PERSECUTIONS OF THE 14TH CENTURY

At the end of the 13th century and the first half of the 14th, anti-Jewish excesses by the mob increased in vehemence and frequency [[provoked by criminal preaching "Christian" priests etc. of the criminal Church]] , and the authorities were also increasingly oppressive.

[[Defeat of the Crusader states in Palestine and the harsh consequences in Europe since 1291
The situation of the criminal Church was aggravating in Europe after the definite defeat in Palestine and after the loss of the last Crusader state in Palestine since 1291. After this defeat many alternative "Christian" religious groups in Europe were coming up which were against the criminal Pope. So the criminal Church under the criminal Pope became even more criminal now. The Pope let pursue any alternative "Christian" religious group, organized special wars against them, and the Jews were also one of the persecuted groups. Inquisition with stakes was installed. There developed also a Church cult against the Jews with anti-Jewish prayers and hatred. At the same time the Jewish methods of money lending under the Church's ban are never mentioned in detail, and "Christian" suffering under the pre-capitalist rules is never mentioned. So, the Pope was playing with the two groups, the "Christians" and the Jews]].

[14th century: Jewish taxes - calumniations, pogroms and massacres: Rindfleisch, Armleder, Black Death - and coming back]

In 1342 Louis IV of Bavaria decreed that "every male Jew and every Jewish widow, of 12 years and above, is obliged to pay a yearly tax of one gulden". This poll tax was designed to increase the income that the emperor derived from the Jews, which had declined as the result of their "transfer" to lower authorities, and came in addition to the other taxes exacted from the Jews. In 1356 Emperor *Charles IV transferred his claim over the Jews to the Imperial Electors.

Within a period of 50 years the Jews of Germany suffered three devastating blows. In 1298-99, when civil war had broken out in southwest Germany, the Jews were accused of Host desecration, and the Jew-baiter, *Rindfleisch, gathered a mob around him which fell upon the Jews of Franconia, Bavaria, and the surrounding area, destroying no less than 140 communities (including *Rothenburg, Wuerzburg, *Nuremberg, and Bamberg). Many Jews chose a martyr's death and in many places also offered armed resistance.

The period 1336-37 was marked by the catastrophe of the *Armleder massacres, in the course of which 110 communities, from Bavaria to Alsace, were destroyed by rioting peasants.

Finally, in the massacres during the *Black Death, in 1348-50, 300 Jewish communities were (col. 468)

destroyed in all parts of the country, and the Jews either killed, or driven out as "poisoners of wells".

[[It can be admitted that the big part were on flight to the countryside]].

The greatest Jewish scholar of the time, *Alexander Suslin ha-Kohen, was among those slain in Erfurt, in 1349. As a result of these three onslaughts, the structure of Jewish life in Germany suffered a severe blow. Nevertheless, only a short while later, Jews were again permitted to take up residence in German cities, where there was no one else to fulfill their function in society of moneylenders. Only a few weeks after the slaughter of the Jews of *Augsburg the bishop permitted some to return to the city; between 1352 and 1355 Jews reappeared in Erfurt, Nuremberg, *Ulm, Speyer, Worms, and Trier.

[Anti-Jewish laws after the coming back - cultural life - route to Poland - no change of the anti-Jewish habits in the criminal "Christian" Church until Reformation]

Their residence was now based on contracts which contained severe restrictions and imposed numerous payments on them. There was also increased exploitation of the Jews by the emperor;a moratorium on debts, declared by *Wenceslas in 1385 and again in 1390, dealt a severe blow to the economic situation of the Jews. Jewish vitality, however, was able to assert itself even in the adverse conditions that prevailed after the Black Death massacres.

The scholars assured the continuity of Jewish creativity. In 1365, *Meir b. Baruch ha-Levi established a new school in Vienna, based upon the customs and traditions of the Rhine communities, and his disciples - the *Sages of Austria" - became the spiritual leaders of German Jewry.

In east and south Germany, with fewer towns and a relatively backward economy, Jews found it easier to earn their livelihood. This was also the route to *Poland, which gradually turned into a refuge for the Jews.

Until the Reformation there was no change in the precarious situation of the Jews of Germany. On the one hand, the disintegration of the Empire prevented large-scale countrywide expulsions: when the Jews were driven out of one locality they were able to bide their time in a neighboring place, and after a short while return to their previous homes;  on the other hand, the lack of a central authority put the Jews at the mercy of local rulers. In general, the emperor, the princes, and the leading classes in the towns gave their protection to the Jews; yet a single fanatic anti-Jewish preacher, John of *Capistrano, found it possible to inflame the masses against the Jews and to initiate a new wave of persecutions (1450-59) which culminated in the expulsion of the Jews from Breslau.

15TH CENTURY

[Expulsions]

The 15th century was generally marked by libels against Jews and their expulsion from certain areas: in 1400 the Jews were expelled from Prague; in 1420, 1438, 1462, and 1473 there were successive expulsions from Mainz; in 1420-21 from Austria; in 1424 from Cologne; in 1440 from Augsburg; in 1475 the blood libel was raised in Trent, resulting in anti-Jewish agitation and riots all over Germany, and the expulsion of the Jews from *Tyrol; in 1492 it was the turn of the Host desecration libel in *Mecklenburg, and the expulsion of the Jews from there; in 1493 they were driven out of *Magdeburg, and in the period 1450-1500, out of many towns in Bavaria, Franconia, and Swabia; in 1499 from Nuremberg; in 1510 there was another Host desecration libel and expulsion from *Brandenburg; in the same year expulsion from Alsace; and in 1519 from Regensburg.

[[The coming back of the Jews some years later is mentioned later]].

Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971):
                                    Germany, vol. 7, col. 466.
                                    Fifteenth-century woodcut showing
                                    the burning of Jewish martyrs. From
                                    Schedel's Weltchronik, 1493 [[See
                                    that the Jews were forced to wear
                                    pointed "Jewish hats", and
                                    the "Christ" is bringing
                                    more wood for the fire]].
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971): Germany, vol. 7, col. 466. Fifteenth-century woodcut showing the burning of Jewish martyrs. From Schedel's Weltchronik, 1493 [[See that the Jews were forced to wear pointed "Jewish hats", and the "Christ" is bringing more wood for the fire]].
x
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971):
                                    Germany, vol. 7, col. 467.
                                    Fifteenth-century woodcut published
                                    and widely disseminated in Germany
                                    showing the martyrdom of the Jews of
                                    Trent following the blood libel of
                                    1475. [[See that the Jews were
                                    forced to wear pointed "Jewish
                                    hats", the "Christ"
                                    sets the fire, and other
                                    "Christians" are watching
                                    the scene]].
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971): Germany, vol. 7, col. 467. Fifteenth-century woodcut published and widely disseminated in Germany showing the martyrdom of the Jews of Trent following the blood libel of 1475. [[See that the Jews were forced to wear pointed "Jewish hats", the "Christ" sets the fire, and other "Christians" are watching the scene]].


[Trade and management besides money lending - Jews connected with the government in Poland - Jewish poverty in Germany]

Nevertheless, in the course of the 15th century, amid these tribulations, Jews were also able to branch out into occupations other than money lending. In the south German communities, there were Jewish wine merchants and petty traders. Jews also began to play a role in the expanding commercial life, acting as intermediaries between the large agricultural producer (such as the monasteries) and the rising city merchant; expelled from the cities and forced to live in the small towns and villages, the Jews bought wool, flax, etc., from the large storehouses and sold these commodities to the wholesale merchant. This (col. 469)

was the beginning of a process which culminated in Poland in the 16th and 17th centuries with the Jews entering the service of the nobility as managers of their estates. Jewish life in the small communities of Germany was frequently marked by great material and spiritual hardship.

[Social and cultural life: festivals - laws - quarrels and disputations of the rabbis in Germany]

Yet the Jews did all in their power to fulfill the commandments of their faith. Israel *Isserlein's Pesakim u-Khetavim (Venice, 1545), para. 52, records a "curious event" in south Germany, when several communities had only a single etrog to share among them on the Sukkot festival; they cut the fruit up and sent a piece to each community, and although shriveled by the time it reached its destination, the Jews made the prescribed blessing over their slice of etrog on the first day of the festival.

Despite their poverty and sufferings, Jews held on to the normal joys of life. Jacob Moses *Moellin permitted "placing tree branches in water on the Sabbath ... in order to provide a source of joy for the house" (Jacob b. Moses Moellin,  Maharil (Cremona, 1558), 38b); when asked about celebrating a wedding in a community where a local ordinance forbade the participation of musicians, the same rabbi advised that the wedding be moved to another community, where music could be made, rather than have the bride and bridegroom forego the pleasure (ibid., 41b).

Even at a time when persecutions were actually taking place, the Jews persisted in their way of life and in study of the Torah. Thus Moses *Mintz, while writing a halakhic decision, records that "the time limit given us by the bishop [of Bamberg] for leaving the town has been reached, for he would not allow us a single additional day or even hour" (Resp. Maharam Mintz, para. 48). The rabbis' position became widely acknowledged in this period, and they were regarded as "the leaders". It may be assumed that it was Meir b. Baruch ha-Levi's school that established the custom of semikhah (rabbinical ordination) and of awarding the title of *Morenu ("our teacher") to a graduate rabbi, a custom which Ashkenazi Jews have still retained.

At the same time the rabbis often engaged in bitter quarrels over the question of jurisdiction, and the position of the rabbi. These quarrels largely resulted from the difficulties facing the Jewish spiritual leaders, who tried, in a permanent state of insecurity, to rebuild communities that had been destroyed. The rabbinical leaders of this period - Meir b. Baruch ha-Levi and his disciples, Jacob b. Moses Moellin, Israel Isserlein (author of Terumat ha-Deshen), Moses Mintz, Israel b. Hayyim (Ḥayyim) *Bruna, and others - were dedicated men who did all in their power to establish new yeshivot [[religious Torah schools]] and spread the study of Torah, but they did not achieve the degree of leadership displayed by their predecessors.

An extreme example of a scholar devoted to his yeshivah was that of Jacob b. Moses Moellin "who would (col. 470)

live in a house alone with his students, next to the house of his wife the 'rabbanit', while her sons were with her in her house; nor did he enjoy a mite of his wife's property during her lifetime or eat with her. Only the communal leaders supplied him with sufficient means to support the students of his yeshivah, while he himself earned a livelihood as a marriage broker" (Maharil 76a).

His yeshivah was attended not only by poor scholars, but by "those rich and pampered youths who had tables made for them - when they sat down in their seats they could turn the table in any direction they pleased, and kept many books on them" (Leket Yosher, ed. by J. Freimann (1903), YD 39). The debate with Christianity did not die down in this period, and Yom Tov Lipmann *Muelhausen raised it to new heights of sharp polemical argument in his Sefer ha-Nizzahon (Sefer ha-Niẓẓaḥon) (see *Disputations).

[Tax restrictions]

Emperors resorted to the most extreme measures in order to extort money from the Jews.

[[The Emperors were directly connected with the criminal "Christian" church because the second son had to be a clergyman]].

The most extortionate was Sigismund who demanded one-third of their property. Their desire to increase the income extracted from the Jews induced the emperors to utilize the high prestige enjoyed by the rabbis by attempting to appoint one of them "chief rabbi" (Hochmeister). In 1407, Rupert of Wittelsbach appointed Israel b. Isaac of Nuremberg to this office, and sought to give him sole powers of sequestering Jewish property.

The communities, however, refused to acknowledge the authority of a Jew appointed by gentiles and eventually the king abandoned his attempt. Sigismund named several "chief rabbis" for the purpose of improving the collection of the oppressive taxes that he imposed upon the Jews, including well-known rabbinical leaders. It is not clear, however, to what extent these appointments were recognized by the communities, and the responsa literature of the period contains no specific references to such appointments. At any rate, a proposal made by Seligmann Oppenheim Bin (see *Bingen) to convene a conference which would create a chief rabbinate was rejected by most of his rabbinical colleagues.

[Summary]

In sum, the last few centuries of the Middle Ages were a period of severe and difficult changes for the Jews of Germany. The center of gravity, both in population and intellectual activity, shifted steadily eastward. From their position as desirable traders the Jews were driven by the religious and social forces which gained ascendancy in the 12th and 13th centuries into the despised occupation of usury. The 50 years from1298 to 1348 took a tragic toll in both life and property. Throughout the trials and tribulations of the Middle Ages the Jews of Germany succeeded in preserving their human dignity and ancestral heritage. They displayed their own creative powers in halakhic literature and religious poetry, and in the establishment of communal institutions. Although they did not disdain the innocent joys of life, they were  exacting in the application of the Law and were imbued with the spirit of ascetic piety.

Kiddush ha-Shem - martyrdom for the sanctification of God - and their particular pietism (Hasidut (Ḥasidut) Ashkenaz), in both theory and practice, were authentic contributions of German Jewry to the realm of supreme Jewish values. When the age of the Reformation set in, German Jewry, although of lesser stature than their ancestors on the Rhine in organization, learning, and religious spirit, was strong enough to stand up to the challenge of a changing world.

[H.H.B.-S.]> (col. 471)

[[...]]

[More expulsions from cities]

When the Middle Ages came to an end, the Jews had suffered expulsion from most German cities, as well as from many other dioceses and localities: (col. 471)

*Heilbronn 1475, *Tuebingen 1477, Bamberg 1478, *Esslingen 1490, Mecklenburg 1492, Magdeburg 1493, *Reutlingen 1495, Wuerttemberg and Wuerzburg 1498, Nuremberg and Ulm 1499, *Noerdlingen 1507, the state of Brandenburg 1510, Regensburg 1519, Rottenburg 1520, and *Saxony 1537. (col. 472) [[...]]

[[All these expulsions were performed with the authorization of the criminal Church. The neighbor towns often admitted the Jews as welcome tax payers and merchants]]:

[Tax struggle -  protected and welcome Jews because they pay taxes]

The Jews were also caught in the struggle between the emperor, on the one hand, and the princes and cities, on the other. The emperors, whose power was on the decline, made efforts to retain their control of the Jews, to protect them against local potentates and to remain the sole beneficiaries of the taxes paid by the Jews. The opposing forces, bent upon establishing their independence of the emperor, also tried to extend their supremacy over the Jews and tax them.

When (col. 472)

attacking the Jews the princes and city governments were not only motivated by the traditional hatred, but also by their desire to reduce the emperor's authority and force the Jews to seek protection from them rather than the emperor. As a result, the Jews were often forced to pay taxes to two or even three different authorities. This situation, however, also prevented a general expulsion of the Jews from Germany at a time when this had become the lot of the Jews in most countries of Western Europe.

The Jews also became the subject of controversy between the local rulers and the Estates (Staende) - the nobility, the ruling clergy, and the privileged townsmen. The latter had the power of levying taxes and tried to extend their power in various ways, including control of the Jews. To some degree the persecutions of Jews in the 15th and 16th centuries, which coincided with a rise in the power of the Estates, were the result of this struggle; thus, the Host desecration libel against Jews in Brandenburg, in 1510, was also an expression of the opposition of the Estates to Elector Joachim I, who had given several Jews permission to settle in the country, despite the Estates' objections.

[Welcome Jewish refugees because they pay taxes and because of their skills in trading]

Other internal differences also affected the situation of the Jews, such as the antagonism between the princes and the landed gentry, and the cities. The former would permit Jews who had been expelled from the cities to settle on their lands, thereby gaining additional taxpayers who were also skilled merchants able to compete with the hated townsmen and provide the princes and estate-owners with better and cheaper supplies. For example, the Jews who had been expelled from Augsburg were offered refuge in the nearby villages; those who had been driven out of Nuremberg were permitted to settle in *Fuerth; the Count of *Oettingen accepted the Jews of Noerdlingen; and the Count of *Hanau lent his protection to the Portuguese Jews to whom the neighboring municipality of Frankfort had refused permission to settle. (col. 473)

Jews were prohibited from practicing most occupations. From engaging in commerce at the beginning of he Middle Ages and in finance at the end, they now had to earn a livelihood from hawking haberdashery, peddling, money lending, and pawnbroking in the small towns and villages. Interest rates were subject to severe regulations, and wearing of the humiliating badge [[and Jewish clothing and Jewish hat]] was enforced. In various states Jews were prohibited from building new synagogues and from holding discussions on religious questions without Church authorization. However, Emperor *Charles V (at assemblies of the Reichstag in Augsburg 1530, Regensburg 1541, Speyer 1544, and Augsburg 1548) authorized in full the charters granted to the Jews by previous emperors.

Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971): Germany,
                          vol. 7, col. 470. Charter of privileges
                          granted to the Jews of Worms by Charles V in
                          1552. Jerusalem, C.A.H.J.P. Rh/w, A1.
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971): Germany, vol. 7, col. 470. Charter of privileges granted to the
Jews of Worms by Charles V in 1552. Jerusalem, C.A.H.J.P. Rh/w, A1.

[Blood calumniations and more expulsions]

At the very time that humanism was coming to the fore, the libels against the Jews, accusing them of using human blood for ritual purposes and of desecrating the Host, were continually resuscitated, and resulted in further killings and expulsions: *Endingen 1470, Regensburg 1476, *Passau 1477, *Trent 1475, Sternberg (Mecklenburg) 1492, Engen (Swabia) 1495, Berlin 1500, Langendenzlingen 1503, Frankfort 1504, Brandenburg 1520.> (col. 472)

Teilen / share:

Facebook




The solution is the Book of Life with Mother Earth - www.med-etc.com

Sources
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971):
                              Germany, vol. 7, col. 457-458
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971): Germany, vol. 7, col. 457-458
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971):
                              Germany, vol. 7, col. 459-460
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971): Germany, vol. 7, col. 459-460
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971):
                              Germany, vol. 7, col. 461-462
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971): Germany, vol. 7, col. 461-462
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971):
                              Germany, vol. 7, col. 463-464
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971): Germany, vol. 7, col. 463-464
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971):
                              Germany, vol. 7, col. 465-466
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971): Germany, vol. 7, col. 465-466
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971):
                              Germany, vol. 7, col. 467-468
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971): Germany, vol. 7, col. 467-468
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971):
                              Germany, vol. 7, col. 469-470
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971): Germany, vol. 7, col. 469-470
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971):
                              Germany, vol. 7, col. 471-472
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971): Germany, vol. 7, col. 471-472
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971):
                              Germany, vol. 7, col. 473-474
Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971): Germany, vol. 7, col. 473-474

  <<     >>
Č  Ḥ  ¦  Ṭ  Ẓ
ā ć  č  ḥ  ī  ¨ ū  ¸  ẓ

^