['Abd al-Majid I: state reforms - equal rights to all non-Muslims since 1839 - confirmation of the rights in 1843 and 1846]Encyclopaedia Judaica
Jews in Ottoman Empire 08: Equal rights since 1839 - emancipation since 1856
State reforms since 1839 - emancipation and Jewish positions since 1856 - chief rabbis in Jerusalem since 1841 - Jewish Orthodox opposition to the state reforms - rabbinate regulations
<The reforms continued at a greater pace in the time of *'Abd al-Majid I (1839-62), who was concerned with the modernization of the judiciary and removal of the restrictions on Christians. Reforms were introduced in internal government, in the collection of taxes and in the granting of equal rights to non-Muslims. The Jews received the same rights and liberties as the other non-Muslim inhabitants (Greeks, Armenians, Bulgarians, etc.) as a result of the Ottoman proclamation - known as hatti-i sherif of the Gul-Khane (The Rose Law or The Rescript of the Rose Chamber) - of Nov. 3, 1839; according to it, the sultan 'Abd al-Majid instituted the Tanzimat (reforms).
The Sultan vouched for the security of the lives, fortunes, property, and regularization of taxation for the subjects of the empire without distinction of religion; religious and personal freedom, as well as equality of rights and military service for non-Muslim citizens, were also guaranteed. The ceremony which took place in the above-mentioned Rose Chamber was also attended by the hakham bashi (chief rabbi) R. Moses Fresco and the delegates of the Jewish community of Constantinople. These rights were again confirmed in 1843 by the grand vizier Riza and in 1846 by the grand vizier Reshid.
[since 1856: full emancipation of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire - Jewish positions]
The Gul-Khane Edict of 1839 was renewed in 1856 by the proclamation of the hatt-i hümayun (imperial rescript), which was a charter of tolerance the sultan granted to all the protected subjects and whose first lines were written by the sultan himself. A solemn ceremony was attended by ministers, patriarchs, and the hakham bashi of the Jews of Turkey, R. Jacob Bekhor David. It was stipulated in this legislation that there was to be no distinction between sects, races, and religions; liberties were granted to all; non-Muslims were to be admitted to the government, civil, and (col. 1538)
military schools; the security of life and property were guaranteed; equality before the law was instituted; every citizen was eligible for public or military office; and religious freedom, equal taxation, and jurisdiction and representation in the municipal councils were guaranteed.
The Jews of Turkey received the same rights as the other minorities. As formerly, they secured positions in Ottoman society and participated in the cultural and economic life. They did not, however, regain their past importance, and their positions were of a secondary nature. Jews began to hold such government functions as administrative directors, judges, physicians of ministers, military doctors, officers, consuls, etc. Every Jews was authorized to wear the national hat (fez). Rabbis were authorized to add a scarf of blue silk to their headdress, and the turban of the rabbis was of the same color as that of the Muslim imam.
[Actions in favor of the Jews: Jewish kitchens - donation to Jewish schools and communities]
In 1847 the sultan 'Abd al-Majid visited the military medical school. When he observed that there were no Jewish students, he decided that their entry should be encouraged and ordered the director of the school to install a kasher kitchen under the supervision of a Jewish cook and supervisor; he exempted Jewish students from studies on the Sabbath and authorized the organization of Jewish prayers on the premises.
When the sultan visited Salonika, the children of the Jewish schools, led by the hakham bashi R. Asher Kovo, welcomed him; he contributed 25,000 piasters to the Jewish schools and 26,000 piasters to the poor of the community.
[Inner Jewish quarrels]
In spite of the sultan's proclamations, which should have widened the rights of the empire's Jews, certain internal events in the Jewish community in the capital caused a delay in the confirmation of the regulations for the Jewish *millet [[minority right system of the Ottoman Empire]]. This delay was caused by the following internal struggle within the Constantinople Jewish community. The Gabbai, Adjiman, and Carmona families, the most prominent in the capital, maintained close relations with the janissaries and they, as bankers and farmers of taxes, maintained their high position in the Jewish community.
[1826: Janissary massacre - 1830s Abraham de Camondo as Jewish leader - first chief rabbi of Jerusalem since 1841 - more state reforms]
As mentioned above, the massacre of the janissaries in 1826 was accompanied by the execution of the major figures of these families and a consequent decline in their importance. In the 1830s Abraham de *Camondo assumed the leadership, as he was from a family of noted scholars and wealthy businessmen. He was influential in court circles, and the confirmation of the first hakham bashi [[chief rabbi]] of Jerusalem in 1841 was in a large part due to his efforts.
He also led the group which attempted to strengthen the community's economic position vis-à-vis the Armenians and the Greeks, who for many years past had held the upper hand due to better general education, ready acceptance of European influence, and connections with the court. Aware, as a result of his business experience and travels, of the progress being made in Europe, Camondo undertook the establishment and a large part of the financing of a modern school in the capital.
In 1856 the hatt-i hümayun [[Imperial edict]] further influenced these modernizations and brought about the formation of a "committee of notables" (Turk. majlis gashini, "functionaries") comprised of wealthy and reform-minded persons under Camondo's leadership. The constitution of this committee in 1860, which included members of the Hamon, Adjiman, and Carmona families, was to some degree an irregular response to the appeal by the hatt-i hümayun for non-Muslim communities to give the sultan suggestions for their reorganization in accord with the times.
Progressive and conservative circles in the community split over the matter, and the conflict was heightened after the modern school was established - French was taught there. An attempt was made to avoid elections to the ruling bodies by establishing a rabbinical grand court and a lay "committee of notables", which was attended by the hakham bashi [[chief rabbi]], Jacob Avigdor.
[Jewish Orthodox opposition to the state reforms and the reforms within Ottoman Jewry]
The Orthodox were to a degree incensed by some of the committee's regulations, e.g., the wearing of the fez, which had been made obligatory for all Muslim Turks in 1829. Isaac Akrish and Solomon Kimhi led anti-Camondo propaganda and claimed that the modern school of education encouraged children to become Christians. This sort of propaganda easily inflamed the common people. Camondo was subsequently excommunicated and the hakham bashi had Akrish imprisoned, but he was released on the order of the sultan Abdu-l-Aziz (1861-76) following demonstrations by his supporters.
The grand vizier then convened a special rabbinical court, on which the hakham bashis of Izmir, Adrianople, and Salonika sat. The court heard the sides - the opponents of hakham bashi Avigdor who wanted him removed and the notables who supported him. The court cleared Avigdor of all charges and threatened excommunication to those who repeated (col. 1539)
them in the future, but he was unable to continue in his position and resigned the next year (1863); he continued to serve as rav ha-kolel for the next 11 years. Carmona and Camondo were also exonerated and their attackers were forced into making apologies.
These events were the cause of the delay in submitting proposals for reorganizing the community as required by the hatt-i hümayun [[Imperial edict]]. Those of the Greek community were approved by 1862 and of the Armenian by 1863. A new hakham bashi [[chief rabbi]] of Constantinople only took office six months later; he was Yakkir Gueron, who had held the same position in Adrianople. He was ordered to draft regulations immediately for the community (nizam-name), but they were only confirmed, after close scrutiny and some changes, in 1865.
[The Rabbinate regulations of Constantinople]
The "Organizational Regulations of the Rabbinate" (hakham-khane nizam namesi) were divided into five parts and were as follows:
(1) the status of the hakham bashi [[chief rabbi]] as head of Jewry in the empire; his qualifications and election (clauses 1-4);
(2) his powers and replacement in the event of resignation or removal from office (clauses 5-15);
(3) the "general committee" (majlis umumi), its election and powers. It consists of 80 members and is presided over by the permanent deputy of the hakham bashi. Sixty secular members are elected by the inhabitants of Constantinople according to city districts, and they in turn elect 20 rabbinical members. These 890 members elect the seven rabbis forming the spiritual committee (majlis ruhani) and the nine members of the secular committee (majlis jismani). These elections require the approval of the Sublime Porte.
At the election of the hakham bashi [[chief rabbi]] for the empire, the general committee is temporarily reinforced by 40 members from eight districts where they officiate as provincial hakham bashis: Adrianople, Bursa, Izmir, Salonika, Baghdad, Cairo, Alexandria, and Jerusalem (clauses 16-19). It is to be noted that clause 16 fails to prescribe the committee's term of office; only in 1910 was it fixed at ten years;
(4) the powers of the spiritual committee. The seven rabbis are to concern themselves with religious and other matters referred to them by the hakham bashi. The committee is not to prevent the publication of books or spread of science and art unless prejudicial to the government, the community, or religion. The committee is to supervise the activities of the city-district rabbis (marei de-atra), who act under its instructions. The committee is headed by a president, who is also the head of the rabbinical court; he is to have two deputies (clauses 20-38);
(5) the powers of the secular committee in regard to management of communal affairs and carrying into effect of government orders. It is to apportion the communal impost and insure the integrity of property of orphans and endowments (clauses 39-48).
No changes in the status of non-Muslim subjects of Muslim rulers took place until the middle of the 19th century. Restrictions and tax laws on the changing of the shapes of existing synagogues or the erection of new ones remained in effect (see Covenant of *Omar). The authorities closely regulated the ghiyar - distinctive apparel and footwear - and segregation in living quarters. Nevertheless, in the European and Asian parts of the empire (except Yemen) the Jewish quarter was not always like a ghetto (see *Jewish Quarter).> (col. 1540)
